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RANUNCULACEAE(Buttercup family)
• Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: The use of poultices, liniments, ointments etc. prepared from any one of several species as remedies for neuralgia, sciatica, arthritic joint pain and similar affections has often been documented. The plants used include both aconitine-containing species and protoanemonin-releasing species. • According to Mabberley (2008), this family comprises 2100 species in 56 genera distributed through temperate and boreal regions. Many are lianes, others form small shrubs, but most are herbs. The principal genera are Aconitum L. [about 100 spp.], Anemone L. [about 150 spp.], Aquilegia L. [80 spp.], Clematis L. [about 323 spp.], Delphinium L. [about 320 spp.], Ranunculus L. [about 600 spp.], and Thalictrum L. (120–200 spp.). Turnbull (1838) noted that many members of the family are acrid and caustic in the highest degree. Very many are grown as ornamentals for their colourful flowers. Hundreds of named cultivars of large-flowered climbing clematis, the so-called Jackman cultivars, have been produced from a cross originally made between Clematis lanuginosa Lindl. and the Henderson's clematis (Clematis hendersonii hort. ex Steud.), itself believed to be a cross between Clematis viticella L. and Clematis integrifolia L. The result was Clematis × jackmanii T.Moore. Other members of the family are grown as hardy annuals, biennials, and perennials, as aquatics, and as alpines, the following genera being most commonly represented in cultivation (Hunt 1968/70):
Some species of Ranunculus L. in particular can become invasive weeds. Therefore, the potential for human contact with these plants is very high. Piffard (1881) noted that Aconitum neomontanum Willd., when applied to the skin, is vesicant. This taxon is now recognised as a hybrid derived from Aconitum napellus subsp.? × Aconitum variegatum.a
In traditional Chinese medicine, the root of this plant is the source of fu zi (附子), otherwise known as Radix Aconiti Lateralis Praeparata.a It is used topically in multicomponent mixtures of crude drugs to provide pain relief. In a patch test study, Chen et al. (2003) obtained 3 positive reactions from among 27 dermatitis patients tested with an ethanol extract prepared from the root. According to Zufall & Youngken (1938), the taste of the root is slightly bitter followed by a very persistent, strong tingling sensation. Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of north-eastern India, the ground root or its juice is mixed with honey or butter and given orally for the treatment of leprosy. The taste of the root is indifferent followed by a tingling sensation (Zufall & Youngken 1938). According to Perry & Metzger (1980), in Chinese traditional medicine, the root is ground to a paste and applied to itchy sores; it also is mixed with white of egg and put on boils.
Referring to Aconitum deinorrhizum, Zufall & Youngken (1938) noted that taste of the root is indifferent followed by a strong tingling sensation; referring to Aconitum laciniatum, these authors noted that the root is sweetish followed by a prolonged tingling sensation and numbness. Begum & Nath (2000), referring to Aconitum heterophylloides, noted that in the traditional medicine of north-eastern India, the ground root or its juice is mixed with honey or butter and given orally for the treatment of leprosy. A minute portion of an extract prepared from the roots applied to the tongue or lips occasions an intense sensation of numbness and tingling (Zufall & Youngken 1938).
Zufall & Youngken (1938) noted that the taste of the root of Aconitum falconeri is somewhat bitter followed by a strong burning and tingling sensation; these authors also noted that the taste of the root of Aconitum spicatum is slightly sweetish followed by a tingling sensation.
This species was formerly official in many pharmacopoeias, providing Aconitum, Aconiti Folia, Aconiti Radix, etc. With moderately toxic oral doses, there is a tingling of the tongue, mouth, stomach, and skin, followed by numbness and anaesthesia. When applied to the skin, aconite produces tingling followed by numbness. Aconite liniments (Linimentum Aconiti Radicis; Linimentum Aconiti Compositum) were formerly being used extensively in the treatment of neuralgia, sciatica, and rheumatism. The principal active constituent is aconitine, an alkaloid, which was at one time used to prepare an ointment (Unguentum Aconitinae) used to treat neuralgia (Felter & Lloyd 1898, Remington et al. 1918, Martindale & Westcott 1924, Munch 1938, Zufall & Youngken 1938, Todd 1967). Piffard (1881) noted that Aconitum has proved useful when applied locally in the treatment of pruritus and acne. Aconite and aconitine are no longer used in Western medicine because of the serious risk of possibly fatal poisoning. Both aconite and aconitine are very irritating to the Schneiderian membrane [the mucous membrane that lines the nasal chambers] and conjunctiva (Felter & Lloyd 1898). According to Piffard (1881), erysipelatous inflammation, redness and vesicles, and tingling and numbness of the sensory nerves may result from skin contact with Aconitum. White (1887) recorded that severe dermatitis occurred in some pharmaceutical workers who processed the plant material. Morrow (1893) referred also to an irritable vesicular eruption that frequently follows the internal use of aconite, this being attended with a sense of formication and excessive itching. Weber (1930) included Aconitum napellus in a list of irritating plants of the United States. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. The tingling and numbness produced by aconitine, like that produced by synthetic pyrethroid insecticides [see Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevir.) Sch.Bip., fam Compositae], is related to its activity as a sodium channel toxin (Wang & Wang 2003). Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from this species, or indeed in any of the extracts from seven other Aconitum species he investigated. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Referring to wolfsbane, which he identified as Aconitum lycoctonum flore Delphinii bearing blue flowers like those of larkspur, with black stamens, and having a "thicke and knobby root", Gerarde (1636) noted:
Using three rat wound-healing models (thermal burn, chemical burn, pannicular wound), Zinurova et al. (2002) demonstrated that a neutral oil obtained by petroleum ether extraction of the seeds stimulated reparative regeneration of skin over a period of 10–15 days at a significantly faster rate than that obtained with [volatile ?] oil from Rosa cinnamomea L., fam Rosaceae or in [untreated ?] controls. Experimental details were not provided, so it is unclear how the oil was administered or applied [topically ?], and how often it was administered or applied.
The dried rhizome of this and certain other species provides the crude drug sheng ma used in traditional Chinese medicine. It has been used in orally administered preparations to induce diaphoresis and promote skin eruptions, being given to children at the onset of measles, for example (Huang 1993). Pammel (1911) listed Cimicifuga foetida as being acrid. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from Cimicifuga cordifolia. See also Ranunculus L. below. It is not clear whether Ruijgrok (1966) was referring to Cimicifuga cordifolia Pursh or to Cimicifuga cordifolia (DC.) Torr. & A.Gray, the latter being now regardeda as a synonym of Actaea cordifolia DC., the Appalachian bugbane. Other authoritiesb consider Actaea cordifolia DC. and Cimicifuga cordifolia (DC.) Torr. & A.Gray to be synonyms of Actaea podocarpa DC.
This plant was formerly official in various pharmacopoeias, providing Cimicifuga, otherwise known as Actaeae Racemosae Radix. The name Macrotys or Macrotrys was also applied. Although historically it had a high reputation for treating rheumatism and neuralgia, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, and for promoting uterine contractions during childbirth (Felter & Lloyd 1898), it has in recent times been investigated mainly as a remedy for treating menopausal symptoms (Foster 1999). A saturated tincture of the root has been used as a stimulant and anodyne embrocation (Felter & Lloyd 1898). According to Piffard (1881), Cimicifuga has proved useful as a local remedy for scabies. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from Cimicifuga racemosa. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Coulter (1904) found a statement claiming that the plant contains a vesicating principle. His experimentation on 15 subjects failed to verify this even after repeating the experiments several times at different stages of the development of the plant. Weber (1930, 1937) included Actaea alba in lists of irritant plants of the United States. Schwartz et al. (1957) included Actaea alba in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Bai et al. (1996) detected no ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves of the baneberry are spit on boils and on wounds (Turner 1984).
The rhizome provides the crude drug Radix Christophoriana (Remington et al. 1918). A decoction of the green root, used locally, destroys lice, fleas, and the itch insect [= scabies ?] (Felter & Lloyd 1898). According to Piffard (1881), the crude drug applied to intact healthy skin may produce vesication. Weber (1930, 1937) subsequently included this species in lists of irritant plants of the United States; and Behl & Captain (1979), citing Schwartz et al. (1957), noted that the toxic juice (oil of baneberry) is capable of causing inflammation and blistering if rubbed on the skin of sensitive persons. However, Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. This genus comprises 35 species found in temperate Eurasia.a Adonis vernalis L. and other species contain cardiac glycosides and have been used in traditional medicine for their digitalis-like action on the heart (Felter & Lloyd 1898, Steinmetz 1954, Wren 1988).
Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. This species is a source of 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone (Karrer 1930), a known contact allergen (Hausen 1978a). According to Mabberley (2008), the genus comprises about 150 species distributed through Eurasia, Sumatra, southern & eastern Africa, and North America to Chile. Gerarde (1636) noted that "All the kindes of Anemones are sharpe, biting the tongue; … "
According to Perry & Metzger (1980), in traditional Chinese medicine the [fresh plant ?] is applied to swellings, skin rashes, itch, etc. Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant; Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. A poultice made of the plant and probably also of Anemone multifida Poir. [see below] causes violent blistering when applied to the skin for 10–20 minutes (Turner & Bell 1973). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
According to Perry & Metzger (1980), in traditional Chinese medicine Anemone japonica [the fresh plant ?] is applied to swellings, skin rashes, itch, etc. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the fresh leaves are used as a poultice for sores, swellings, bruises, etc., being left on for only a few minutes. They are also used to plug the nose to stop nose bleeds. A strong decoction of the plant is used to kill fleas and lice (Turner 1984). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. Bai et al. (1996) detected a moderately high level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant, and a lower level in the roots. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Pammel (1911) listed the plant as being irritant, citing a number of earlier texts. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), the plant abounds in an acrid juice, which is particularly intense in the root. These properties disappear when the plant is dried. The leaves bruised and applied to the skin are rubefacient. When applied locally it is said to be efficient in "scald-head" [= kerion or a similar pustular or crusting condition of the scalp]. Earlier, Piffard (1881) had noted that local application to healthy skin can produce redness, vesicles, and ulcers. Bulliard (1784) also referred to the irritancy of this species. A severe case of bullous dermatitis induced experimentally by local application of the crushed plant material was reported by Dufke (1930) who noted also that the intact plant had no effect. Four cases of severe vesicular dermatitis were observed following application of the crushed leaves to the skin for joint pain in the ankles and knees (Frenzl 1937). A similar case was reported by Spengler (1946) who likened the skin reaction to a second degree burn. The acute reaction took more than three weeks to resolve; residual hyperpigmentation was observed after three months; and, interestingly, the arthritis of the knee to which the plant material had been applied also resolved. White (1887) stated that he had not known this plant to cause trouble to anyone handling it although it was of wide occurrence and one of the earliest and most plucked wildflowers of spring. Müller (1850) described his work on the isolation and characterisation of anemone camphor [= anemonin containing residual protoanemonin] from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. Bonora et al. (1987) also reported the release of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. This species is probably the plant to which the name Anemone obtusifolia, a name of no botanical standing but used by several authors, actually refers. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. In Indian traditional medicine, the pounded root is used externally as a blistering agent but is apt to produce sores and scars (Nadkarni 1976, Behl & Captain 1979). Varitimidis et al. (2006), investigating the insecticidal properties of crude extracts of the leaves, identified ranunculin as an active principle. This glycoside releases the irritant lactone protoanemonin when the plant is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Coulter (1904) found a statement that the plant is irritating to the skin, producing redness and itching. However, from his own experiments he concluded that the plant was perfectly innocuous. Nevertheless, Weber (1930, 1937) included this species in lists of irritant plants, and Schwartz et al. (1957) included Anemone quinquifolia [sic] in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. This species provides the crude drug liang tou jian, otherwise known as Anemone Raddeana Rhizome, used in traditional Chinese medicine. According to Perry & Metzger (1980), the [fresh plant ?] is applied to swellings, skin rashes, itch, etc.
The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from Anemone barbulata. See also Ranunculus L. below. The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 2% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a larger quantity of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the cultivar ‘Albadura’ than he obtained from the species. See also Ranunculus L. below. Some authors refer to the cultivar he studied as Anemone tomentosa ‘Albadura’; others refer to the cultivar name as ‘Alba Dura’. The name Anemone albadura is also seen in the literature, but is of no botanical standing. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of only a very low level of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from the leaves of this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 6% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 5% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. According to Train et al. (1957), Nevada Indians mash the fresh roots and rub them briskly on aching rheumatic joints. The also use the mashed ripe seeds in the treatment of head lice. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves are spit on sores, and the pulp scraped from the roots is smeared on sores. Also, a decoction of the whole plant is used to wash the hair and scalp (Turner 1984). Bai et al. (1996) detected no ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 1% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of only a very low level of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from the leaves of this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). Schwartz et al. (1957) included columbines in general (Aquilegia spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Although Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant, Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of a very low level of protoanemonin, an irritant lactone, from the leaves; and Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 11% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. In the traditional medicine of China and Japan, the plant is pounded with vinegar for use as a poultice and an antiseptic against malignant sores (Perry & Metzger 1980). In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves are spit on wounds, or crushed and placed on as a poultice to reduce pain and inflammation (Turner 1984). Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Pammel (1911) noted that the plant yields an acrid oil identical with that from Ranunculus. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. According to Behl & Captain (1979), the plant has an acrid juice that is liable to cause inflammation and blistering if it comes into contact with the skin. Prosser White (1934) referred to a case of skin irritation in a girl who dressed her knee with a marsh marigold instead of marsh mallows. Although Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant, Bruni et al. (1986) and Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of a very low level of protoanemonin, an irritant lactone, from the leaves. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 9% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The plant name was originally published as Ceratocephalus falcatus, but plant nomenclature rules now hold that this is not the correct form to use. Nevertheless, many authors continue to refer to the plant using this name. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described Ranunculus falcatus as vesicant. According to Behl & Captain (1979), Ranunculus falcatus is used by beggars and malingerers in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see below]. Metin et al. (2005), referring to Ceratocephalus falcatus, documented the cases of 3 patients who were admitted to their clinic at different times from different districts in Turkey with a common complaint of a large irritant contact dermatitis resembling a second-degree burn injury caused by the application of a plant poultice prepared from this species. Ruijgrok (1966), also referring to Ceratocephalus falcatus, detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. The presence of ranunculin in the plant was later confirmed by Nachman & Olsen (1983). See also Ranunculus L. below. The genus comprises about 323 species found mainly in northern temperate regions, with a few occurring in southern temperate regions, Oceania, and on mountains in tropical regions of Africa (Mabberley 2008). All the species of the genus are acrid and irritant (White 1887, Greshoff 1909). The various species of clematis, when applied to the skin in a fresh state, blister it; and if taken internally, act as corrosive poisons. Both drying and boiling destroy the virulent property. They have been used externally in the treatment of several cutaneous affections, and in form of a liniment, made with oil, for the cure of itch. The green leaves bruised are sometimes employed to produce vesication, also, as an escharotic and detergent for venereal and other foul and indolent ulcers (Felter & Lloyd 1898). Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed a number of species as acrid, irritant, or vesicant including:
Others are considered in the monographs below. Lloyd in White (1887) stated that "in working Clematis for anemonin, our hands were blistered several times". Lancaster (1937) reported that he had seen 12 cases of dermatitis attributable to clematis. He stated that both Clematis jackmanii and Clematis paniculata were popularly grown in the area, but botanical identity was not confirmed. Clematis paniculata was the most popular (with snowy white blossoms), being used to cover arbors, walls and fences. His patients presented with eczematous and oedematous eruptions of exposed skin, with recurrences each summer. No clear cause-effect relationship was documented as regards the nature of the contact between the plant and the patient, but he seemingly described an airborne contact dermatitis. Patch tests were carried out with small pieces of fresh leaf as is, bullous reactions often occurring. A large number of patients with a negative patch test to clematis leaf were positive to other vegetation such as snow-on-the-mountain, ragweed, mint, primroses, or ivy (none of which being unequivocally identified botanically). This suggests that a true allergic contact dermatitis was being observed by this author as was also suggested by Dr H Ford Anderson in the discussion of the paper. A case of keratomycosis [= mycotic keratitis] in a 61-year old male caused by Cylindrocarpon lichenicola D.Hawksworth (Fungi Imperfecti) was suspected to have been acquired whilst pruning clematis plants (Kaben et al. 2006). Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this Australian species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Southwell & Tucker (1993), referring to Clematis pubescens, demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this Australian plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. The dried stem of this species provides the crude drug chuan mu tong used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is one of the component herbs used to prepare a proprietary remedy being developed in the UK for the oral treatment of chronic eczema (Sheehan et al. 1992, Liu et al. 1993, Rustin & Atherton 1994, Kirby & Schmidt 1997). This hybrid derives from Clematis heracleifolia DC. × Clematis stans Siebold & Zucc. Several named cultivars are available from nurseries. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from an unspecified cultivar. See also Ranunculus L. below.
If the stem is bruised and sniffed, sneezing is induced on account of the pungency of the plant. When chewed, the leaf produces a burning sensation in the mouth (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In the traditional medicine of Natal [now KwaZulu-Natal], the leaves of Clematis glaucescens pounded and mixed with a certain red earth are smeared onto children suffering from skin eruptions (Hulme 1954). Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of north-eastern India, the leaves of Clematis buchaniana [sic] are ground and applied as a paste for the treatment of skin problems in general. In traditional Chinese medicine, the roots and rhizomes of this species — but possibly also those of Clematis brachyura Maxim., Clematis hexapetala Pall. (syn. Clematis angustifolia Jacq.), Clematis terniflora DC. (syns. Clematis terniflora var. robusta (Carrière) Tamura, Clematis terniflora DC. var. koreana (Nakai) Tamura), Clematis terniflora DC. var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi, Clematis uncinata Champ. ex Benth. (syn. Clematis alsomitrifolia Hayata), and perhaps other species — provide the crude drug known variously as wei ling xian (威霊仙; 威灵仙) [Chinese], ireisen (イレイセン) [Japanese], wiryongseon (위령선) [Korean], Radix et Rhizoma Clematidis, Radix Clematidis Chinensis, or Clematis Chinensis Root, a decoction of which may be taken internally for its analgesic, diuretic, and antibacterial effects or applied to swollen tissues (Namba & Mikage 1983, Mikage & Namba 1983a, 1983b, 1983c, 1983d, Huang 1993). The crude drug is usually combined with several other ingredients when preparing remedies (see American Herbal Pharmacology Delegation 1975), so if adverse drug reactions occur in patients to whom these remedies have been prescribed, it may not be possible to identify the causative ingredient(s) without carrying out provocation / patch tests with all the ingredients separately (Wong 2002, Xu et al. 2019). Contact with the fresh plant material for 10 hours caused erythema, bullae, burning pain, and systemic symptoms, the disease condition lasting for 6 days (Wang et al. 2001). In another case, where the fresh plant material was applied to treat wrist pain, the patient developed a central area of leukoderma surrounded by [post-inflammatory ?] hyperpigmentation (Tan et al. 2008). The roots are rich in triterpenoid saponins, mainly oleanolic-type and hederagenin-type, most of which are bidesmosidic saponins, substituted with oligosaccharide chains at both C-3 and C-28, some being substituted with acetyl, caffeoyl, isoferuloyl, p-methoxy cinnamyl, and 3,4-dimethoxy cinnamyl groups in the oligosaccharides chains (Chawla et al. 2012). Shao et al. (1995) noted that protoanemonin and anemonin have been "obtained" from this species but provided no further detail. Clematis Chinensis Root Extract [INCI] is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), this is thought to be the most acrid of the indigenous [North American] species. Felter & Lloyd (1898) noted the plant is used as a rubefacient; and that an infusion of the leaves and flowers removes spots and freckles from the skin. Standley (1937b) noted that the leaves are caustic and vesicant. According to Allen (1943), the crushed leaves will blister the skin, and proximity to the plant can cause dermatitis in susceptible individuals. Jiu (1966) also noted that the plant is rubefacient and vesicant.
Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this Australian species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
From an ethnobotanical survey carried out in Central Italy, Leporatti & Corradi (2001) reported that the fresh crushed leaves are applied to varicose sores; and that a cataplasm with leaves scalded in olive oil is rubbed on painful arthritic joints; and that the juice from fresh salted and sliced leaves mixed with ethyl alcohol, tincture of iodine and soap is employed against eczema. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Pammel (1911) listed Clematis florida as being irritant. Perry & Metzger (1980), in asserting that the dried rhizome or root contains anemonin and anemonol, alluded to the presence of ranunculin in the plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this Tasmanian species. See also Ranunculus L. below. This Australian species produces vesication on prolonged contact with the skin and is irritant to the nasal passages if inhaled (Hurst 1942, Everist 1972). Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. The juice of freshly crushed leaves and stems has a vesicant action (Pammel 1911, Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Nadkarni 1976, Behl et al. 1966). von Reis Altschul (1973) found an herbarium note stating that in the Philippines, the leaves when pounded [are] used in the treatment of wounds. The leaves are similarly used in Taiwan (Perry & Metzger 1980). The juice of the plant is irritant (Dalziel 1937) and the leaves are used as a vesicant in West Africa (Ainslie 1937, Irvine 1961). Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as blistering. von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note stating that in Ecuador, "The flowers are mashed in a vessel for 5 days and the mass then used to treat animals with mange — also used to kill lice on animals". The juice from freshly crushed leaves and stems of Clematis triloba Heyne, if applied to the skin, can produce severe irritation and vesication (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Behl & Captain 1979). Irvine (1961) noted that the leaves have a blistering effect and that the juice is more or less vesicant. He noted also that in West African traditional medicine, the juice is applied externally to skin diseases. Applications of the powdered roots and leaves are also used. The root, prepared as a poultice, has been used in Tanganyika [now Tanzania] for "drawing" septic lesions (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Referring to a plant collection identified as "Clematis, 313", Geyer (1846) remarked that the scraped root leaves a burning sensation for half a day if touched with the tongue. Clematis, 313 was subsequently identified by Hooker (1847) as Clematis douglasii. This plant, which has been used by the Nez Perce and Teton Sioux nations as a horse stimulant (Geyer 1846, Morgan 1981), yields anemonin, a dilactone derived from the spontaneous cyclodimerisation of protoanemonin, an exceedingly vesicant oil that produces severe erythema and blistering of the skin (Kern & Cardellina 1983). In an earlier study, Ruijgrok (1966) reported the presence of a high level of ranunculin (the precursor of protoanemonin) in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Clematis hirsutissima. See also Ranunculus L. below. Interestingly, the species to which Geyer (1846) was referring was identified [erroneously ?] by Stannard & Crowder (2003-2006) as Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt., the western clematis [see below]. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. von Reis Altschul (1973) found an herbarium note stating that in the Philippines, the juice of the triturated leaves is applied to open wounds. Perry & Metzger (1980) also referred to this use. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below.
According to Train et al. (1957), the stems have been used by Nevada Indians as a counter-irritant by whipping sore or painful areas. Also, the mashed leaves, sometimes combined with the leaves of Plantago major L. (fam. Plantaginaceae), have been used as a poultice for rheumatic pains, bruises, wounds, swellings, and boils. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, a decoction of the stems and leaves have been used as a hair restorer, as a head wash for scabs and eczema, as an eyewash, and for sores and itchiness. The leaves rubbed together in water form a lather, which has been used as a general soap or for skin sores and boils on men and on animals (Turner 1984). Bai et al. (1996) detected no ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
In Indo-China, a decoction of the plant is used to treat itch (Perry & Metzger 1980). Felter & Lloyd (1898) noted that this species was probably the most acrid of all the genus and that it has been employed by the negroes of the Isle of France [Mauritius] to blister the cheek for the relief of toothache. Gardner & Bennetts (1956) included this species in a list of plants known or suspected of causing dermatitis, probably from Cleland (1931) who noted that the natives of the Encounter Bay region of Australia are said to have known of the capacity of this plant to produce inflammation of the skin. Poultices of the crushed leaves were used by European settlers as counter-irritants for rheumatic joints. Applied for too long (e.g. seven instead of three minutes), such poultices may cause irritation leading to blistering after 12 hours (Cleland & Lee 1963). Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. Southwell & Tucker (1993) demonstrated the release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from this Australian species. See also Ranunculus L. below. In traditional Chinese medicine, an extract of the roots has been given to women to cure itching (Perry & Metzger 1980). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of low levels of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. The juice from freshly crushed leaves and stems of this species, if applied to the skin, can produce severe irritation and vesication (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Nadkarni 1976, Behl & Captain 1979).
In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, a decoction of the plant is used as a wash for sores and itches and for "head and neck scabs"; also as a hair restorer or shampoo, which is said to prevent grey hair (Turner 1984). Bai et al. (1996) detected a low level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. below. The juice from freshly crushed leaves and stems of this species, if applied to the skin, can produce severe irritation and vesication (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Behl & Captain 1979). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note stating that the plant is "said to be poisonous to touch". Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described Clematis wightiana as blistering.
Brooker & Cooper (1961a, 1961b) recorded that in traditional New Zealand medicine, the leaves are applied to produce blisters as a counter irritant. This species, like others of its family, will produce a painful pustular, eczema-like eruption, which may result in blebs or bullae, and even develop into small painful ulcers (Felter & Lloyd 1898). The plant has been used as a vesicant (Turnbull 1838). Some authors refer incorrectly to "Clematis erecta", a name of no botanical standing. Thus, Piffard (1881), referring to Clematis erecta, noted that application of the crude drug to intact healthy skin may produce vesicles and ulcers. He noted also that local application has proven useful in the treatment of cancerous ulcers. This species provides the crude drug Clematis, formerly official in the US Dispensatory. The leaves and flowers have an acrid, burning taste. When bruised in a mortar they irritate the eyes and throat, giving rise to a flow of tears and to coughing, and applied to the skin they produce inflammation and vesication; hence their old name of Flammula Jovis. The acridity is greatly diminished by drying (Remington et al. 1918). Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves of this plant released very low levels (<100 µg/g wet wt) of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Clematis wilfordii. See also Ranunculus L. below. Referring to Clematis sinensis [sic], Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) citing Githens (1949) recorded that in the Congo, the leaf is used as a counter irritant. They also recorded that the root, prepared as a poultice, has been used for "drawing" septic lesions. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Stuart (1911), who identified Clematis paniculata as the source of the Chinese crude drug hsien jen tsao (仙人草), was probably referring to this species. He noted that in Chinese traditional medicine, a decoction of this plant has been used to wash scrofulous ulcers in children, and the expressed juice has been used in the treatment of corneal opacities. Clematis terniflora has also been identified in samples of the crude drug wei ling xian (威霊仙; 威灵仙) from Korea (Mikage & Namba 1983b) and from Japan (Namba & Mikage 1983), wei ling xian normally being regarded as having been produced from Clematis chinensis [see above]. Ruijgrok (1966) may have been referring to this species when he reported the presence of a very high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a very high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Clematis paniculata. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from Clematopsis stanleyi, a southern African taxon. See also Ranunculus L. below. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), this species produces painful eczema-like eruptions, which may result in small painful ulcerations. Coulter (1904) carried out experiments in 17 subjects and found that skin reactions were produced in 4 subjects who merely handled the plant material. In a further 5, a reaction developed after rubbing the skin with the leaves and flowers. A marked hyperaemia preceded the vesicular stage of the inflammation, which in no case lasted more than 3 days. Massey (1941) included Clematis virginiana in a list of plants described as "less troublesome" causes of dermatitis, but did not cite the source of his information. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Weber (1930, 1937) was most probably referring to this species when he included Clematis virginica L. (a name of no botanical standing) in lists of irritating plants of the United States.
Pammel (1911) listed this species as irritant. Lacassagne & Joly (1927) described how various irritant plants, including Clematis vitalba L., had been used by ex-soldiers in France in the 16th Century to ulcerate the skin in order to attract pity. Piffard (1881) and Leporatti & Ivancheva (2003) also noted that application of the plant material to the skin may produce redness, vesication and ulcers. According to Piffard (1881), a decoction of the leaves applied externally is a prompt and powerful detergent of sordid atonic and scrofulous ulcers. The roots, boiled for a short time to diminish their acrimony, and then infused in boiling oil, were applied to the skin several times a day, in itch, and a cure was effected in 12 or 15 applications; also, the plant, boiled in oil and mixed with wax and verdigris, was formerly esteemed as a remedy for tinea (Felter & Lloyd 1898). From an ethnobotanical survey carried out in Central Italy, Leporatti & Corradi (2001) reported that the fresh crushed leaves are applied to varicose sores; and that a cataplasm with leaves scalded in olive oil is rubbed on painful arthritic joints; and that the juice from fresh salted and sliced leaves mixed with ethyl alcohol, tincture of iodine and soap is employed against eczema. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of low levels of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from an unnamed cultivar derived from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Pammel (1911) listed Delphinium ajacis L. as being irritant. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), this species possesses similar properties to those of Delphinium consolida [see Consolida regalis Gray below]. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) assert that the powdered seeds have been used since antiquity for destruction of body parasites. A fluid extract prepared from the plant, which is used as a parasiticide in India, produced local irritation (Chopra et al. 1958). Both leaf and seed have been recorded as producing dermatitis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Behl et al. 1966). Schwartz et al. (1957) included Delphinium ajacia [sic] in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from Delphinium ambiguum. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The seeds were at one time official in the US Pharmacopoeia as Semen Consolidae Regalis. A tincture prepared from the seeds has been recommended for destroying lice in the hair. It possesses similar properties to a tincture prepared from the seeds of Delphinium staphisagria L. [see below], but in a lesser degree (Felter & Lloyd 1898). Wren (1988) also refers to this use. An extract prepared from Delphinium consolida was vesicant (Van Hasselt & Henkel 1862) and a specific element in the seeds produces in tincture great burning and inflammation of the skin (Oesterlen 1856). Coulter (1904) tried to confirm these early observations by experiment. He found that the tincture he prepared from the small amount of material available to him, when applied to the skin, produced some slight burning and inflammation, although the latter was no greater than would be expected from a similar treatment with pure alcohol. Schwartz et al. (1957) included Delphinium consolida in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from Delphinium consolida. See also Ranunculus L. below.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the plant is pounded and applied as a poultice to boils (Perry & Metzger 1980). The Chinese crude drug huang lian (川连; 黄连), otherwise known as Rhizoma Coptidis, is derived from the rhizome of this plant. In the treatment of trichomonal vaginitis, a 20% huang lian extract is soaked into gauze and directly applied to the vaginal mucosal membrane; the reported efficacy rate was 96% (Huang 1993). The rhizome contains 7–9% berberine (Huang 1993). See also Berberis L. (fam Berberidaceae) and Argemone mexicana L. (fam. Papaveraceae).
In Japan, a concentrated solution of the roasted and powdered rhizome has been rubbed on scabies; and an ointment containing the rhizome and leaf has been employed for eczema marginatum (Perry & Metzger 1980). The Chinese crude drug huang lian (川连; 黄连), otherwise known as Rhizoma Coptidis, is derived from the rhizome of this plant. In Indian traditional medicine, it is known as mishmee bitter or mishimi teeta. Nadkarni (1976) and Begum & Nath (2000) recorded that a paste prepared from the root is applied to sores. The rhizome contains 7–9% berberine (Huang 1993). See also Berberis L. (fam Berberidaceae) and Argemone mexicana L. (fam. Papaveraceae). According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds are irritant. According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds are irritant.
Felter & Lloyd (1898) noted that Delphinium azureum possesses similar properties to those of Delphinium consolida [see Consolida regalis Gray above]. According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds can produce dermatitis. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from this species, or indeed in any of the extracts from five other Delphinium taxa he investigated. See also Ranunculus L. below. Felter & Lloyd (1898) noted that this species possesses similar properties to those of Delphinium consolida [see Consolida regalis Gray above]. Pammel (1911) listed this species as being acrid. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, a decoction of the root is used as a wash to get rid of lice, fleas, and other insects (Turner 1984). Pammel (1911) listed this species as being acrid. The seeds of this plant was formerly official in various pharmacopoeias, providing Delphinium, otherwise known as Staphisagria. Preparations of the seeds (Unguentum Staphisagriae; Lotio Staphisagriae) have a long history of use in the treatment of scabies and for killing head and body lice (Pereira 1842, Felter & Lloyd 1898, Jamieson 1908, Remington et al. 1918, Martindale & Westcott 1924, Wren 1988) but have largely fallen out of use in Western medicine with the development of less toxic acaricides and insecticides. Piffard (1881) refers also to the topical use of Delphinium preparations on fungous ulcerations, ulcers and eruptions, and pruritus. Ethnobotanical surveys (see, for example, Merzouki et al. 2000, Hanlidou et al. 2004) suggest that a preparation of the seeds continues to be used as a pediculicide and hair tonic in traditional medical practice. The crude alkaloidal extract was given the name delphinia. When a small quantity is dissolved in alcohol and rubbed on the skin, delphinia produces a sensation of burning and prickling, with tingling and slight redness (Pereira 1842). According to Piffard (1881), pure delphinia produces inflammation of the skin with free desquamation of the epidermis. Delphinine, one of the alkaloids present in the plant, acts like veratrine (see Schoenocaulon officinale A.Gray ex Benth., fam Melanthiaceae) when applied externally but produces more redness and burning and less tingling than that substance (Remington et al. 1918). An alcoholic solution from the seeds was applied to the heads of several children as a pediculicide. One child developed acute dermatitis of the face and hands three days after the application (White 1887).
According to Massey (1941), the conspicuous blue flowers of the [dwarf] larkspur attract children and adults to gather them in bunches. It is under such conditions that susceptible skins develop a dermatitis. Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds can produce dermatitis. The species, many varieties of which occur naturally in the Caucasus region, has been reported to yield ranunculin, protoanemonin, and anemonin (Ruijgrok 1966, Dalakishvili & Kemertelidze 1970). See also Ranunculus L. below.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected a very high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a very high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Helleborus corsicus. See also Ranunculus L. below. From an ethnobotanical survey carried out in Central Italy, Leporatti & Corradi (2001) reported that the freshly sliced leaves are locally applied to remove warts.
According to Pieroni (2000), a decoction of the plant applied externally has been used in Italian folk medicine as an insect repellant. From an ethnobotanical survey carried out in Central Italy, Leporatti & Corradi (2001) reported that the freshly sliced leaves are locally applied to remove warts. Viegi et al. (2003) recorded the use of this plant in Italian folk veterinary medicine for the treatment of [unspecified] problems of the skin and wounds. Pieroni (2000) was a little more specific, stating that the leaves or the juice from the plant have been used against a pig infection called "red illness". Tschesche et al. (1981) isolated both ranunculin and protoanemonin from this species when investigating the biosynthesis of these substances by the plant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) reported low levels of protoanemonin release. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from Helleborus odorus subsp. laxus released only very low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The common name hellebore has given rise to confusion since ancient times. Theophrastus (c. 350–287 BCE) observed that the white and black hellebores appear to have nothing in common except the name. White or false hellebore is Veratrum album L. (fam. Melanthiaceae). The root of this plant was formerly official in various pharmacopoeias. It provides Radix Hellebori Nigri, otherwise known as Radix Melampodii or Hellebori Nigri Rhizoma. According to Pereira (1842), this is not the black hellebore of Dioscorides, to which the name Helleborus officinalis has been applied (which was probably Helleborus orientalis Lam.). The fresh root applied to the skin produces rubefaction and vesication (Pereira 1842, Piffard 1881). Lacassagne & Joly (1927) described how various irritant plants, including Helleborus niger L., had been used by ex-soldiers in France in the 16th Century to ulcerate the skin in order to attract pity. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of high levels of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. Viegi et al. (2003) recorded the use of this plant in Italian folk veterinary medicine for the treatment of [unspecified] problems of the skin and wounds. Duke-Elder & MacFaul (1972b) noted that the root of Helleborus odoris [sic], introduced in powder form into the conjunctival sac, has produced severe keratoconjunctivitis.
Kavalali (1976) isolated anemonin from the leaves of a plant identified as Helleborus orientalis Lam. var. hirsutus Schiffn. Anemonin is formed by the spontaneous dimerisation of the irritant lactone protoanemonin [see Ranunculus L. below]. According to Pieroni (2000), the leaves of the plant applied externally have been used in Italian folk medicine as a remedy for haemorrhoids. Viegi et al. (2003) recorded the use of this plant in Italian folk veterinary medicine for the treatment of [unspecified] problems of the skin and wounds. Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released only very low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below. Schwartz et al. (1957) included the liver leaf in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Ruijgrok (1966) detected low levels of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Anemone hepatica. See also Ranunculus L. below. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers, probably only on the basis of its botanical classification in the Ranunculaceae. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) noted that the early colonists of the Cape are reported as having used this plant as a cantharides substitute, and as a remedy for sciatica and rheumatism, probably by local application. An aqueous acetone extract prepared from the fresh plant material yielded ranunculin as a major component; the irritant lactone protoanemonin was obtained on steam distillation (Campbell et al. 1979). See also Ranunculus L. below. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) recorded that the fresh crushed leaf is strongly irritant and vesicant but loses this property when dried. They went on to explain that the leaf is not suitable for use in medicine as a blistering agent because the action is too drastic, too penetrating, and too slow in developing.
The leaf is used as a vesicant; it is more effective when fresh. The root is also irritant, the sore resulting from its application healing only very slowly (Turnbull 1838, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Pammel (1911), citing earlier authors, listed Knowltonia vesicatoria as being acrid and vesicant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below. In an ethnobotanical survey of Palestine, Ali-Shtayeh et al. (2000) were informed that [an unspecified preparation of] the plant is used in the treatment of [unspecified] skin diseases.
Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from this species; Bonora et al. (1987) could detect no release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from the leaves of this species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The seeds of this plant are used in the traditional medicine of the Indian subcontinent, Arabian countries, and Europe for a variety of indications including dermatological conditions. A review of the pharmacology and toxicology is provided by Ali & Blunden (2003). Nadkarni (1976) noted that in Indian traditional medicine a decoction of the seeds in a sweet oil forms a useful application in [unspecified] skin diseases; and that a favourite external application in eczema and pityriasis is composed of the bruised seeds with several other ingredients. In the Malay Peninsula, the seeds are components of poultices for abscesses (Perry & Metzger 1980). The clinical effectiveness of an ointment containing 15% black seed oil has been evaluated in a double-blind controlled study in 20 patients with atopic dermatitis (Stern & Bayerl 2002). No significant difference between the ointment and placebo could be demonstrated in any of the investigated parameters Two case reports of allergic contact dermatitis following topical use of the oil from the seeds have been reported from Germany. In one case, the undiluted oil had been applied to the neck over a period of 3 months for a sore throat (Steinmann et al. 1997); in the second case, the patient had used an ointment containing the oil for the treatment of hand eczema (Zedlitz et al. 2002). Both cases were confirmed by patch testing, with no reactions being elicited in controls. In the first case, a 3+ reaction was obtained even with a 1:200 dilution of the oil. Two further cases in Saudi Arabia were mentioned by El-Rab & Al-Sheikh (1995). The expressed oil from the seeds contains thymoquinone (Houghton et al. 1995), a known elicitor of contact dermatitis to woods in the plant family Cupressaceae. This substance is believed to be responsible in part for the anti-inflammatory properties of the oil (Ali & Blunden 2003). It may also be the contact allergen in black seed oil to which the patients become sensitised [see above], as predicted by Mitchell (1974c). Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in an extract prepared from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below. In his description of the properties of pasque flowers, Gerarde (1636) wrote: "Passe floure doth extremely bite, and exulcerateth and eateth into the skinne if it be stamped and applied to any part of the body; … "
Ruijgrok (1966) detected low levels of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Anemone alpina. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Both protoanemonin and anemonin were isolated from the aerial parts of this plant in a pharmacologic study reported by Martin et al. (1988) who demonstrated that anemonin had antipyretic properties and that both anemonin and protoanemonin participated in a sedating effect. See also Ranunculus L. below.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried root of this species provides bai tou weng, otherwise known as Radix Pulsatillae or Chinese Pulsatilla Root. It is used externally to treat Trichomonas vaginitis; it also used internally for various ailments including nose bleeds and haemorrhoids. In the treatment of neuralgic dermatitis, the fresh leaf is rubbed on the affected area (Huang 1993). The fresh plant contains ranunculin, which releases the volatile oil protoanemonin (Zhang et al. 1990, Huang 1993) described as camphor of anemone by Perry & Metzger (1980). See also Ranunculus L. below.
According to Felter & Lloyd (1898): "The fresh plant will vesicate, and the vapors of the fresh juice have produced severe conjunctivitis. Simple contact with the plant produces severe irritation." Vance (1982) undertook a detailed study of the irritancy of the plant. The flowering plant was diced and applied to the forearm under occlusion for one hour. Slight tingling was noted while the plant material was in contact with the skin but no objective changes were visible at the time the plant material was removed. After 12 hours, mild erythema appeared; after 36 hours, tenderness was noted and a small blister appeared, this becoming a large flaccid bulla during the next 24 hours. During the next 48 hours, the bulla resolved and eventually desquamated leaving residual erythema and hyperpigmentation, the latter resolving over a period of several months. To determine which plant parts contained the irritant, the plant was divided into its various parts. Plant hairs, roots, sepals, and anthers and pollen all produced no visible reaction on the skin. The leaves and to a lesser extent the stems both produced a marked reaction. Tests for phototoxicity were negative. Weber (1930) included Anemone patens in a list of irritant plants. Schwartz et al. (1957) included Anemone patens in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the leaves are mashed and used as a poultice on sores, bruises, and boils for just a minute or so to draw out infection; severe blistering results if the leaves are left on for too long. The plant is also used as a poultice for horses, to heal cuts and stop bleeding (Turner 1984).
Anemone ludoviciana is an alternative source of the crude drug Pulsatilla, which was formerly official in the US National Formulary (Remington et al. 1918). See also Pulsatilla pratensis L. below. Referring to Anemone patens var. nuttalliana, Felter & Lloyd (1898) noted that "the recent flowers and leaves are very acrid and irritating, which properties are considerably lessened by drying, owing to the evaporation of a volatile, acrid principle. The fresh plant will vesicate, and the vapors of the fresh juice have produced severe conjunctivitis. Simple contact with the plant produces severe irritation." Pammel (1911) also asserted that the different parts of the plant (which he referred to as Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana) are extremely acrid and when applied to the skin cause irritation and vesication. He went on to describe how the juice of the plant, when spattered on the hands of a botanist while pressing the plant, had caused severe blistering; and that the vapours evolving from the fresh juice had inflamed the eyes. Aaron & Muttitt (1964) provided a detailed case report of bullous dermatitis which resulted from compresses of the leaves of what they believed to have been Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana (wild crocus) applied to the knees for the self-treatment of arthritis. Patch tests to the plant applied for 20–60 minutes produced vesicular reactions in volunteers. The irritant reaction could be repeated in the laboratory using Anemone patens L. [see above]. Hyperpigmentation appeared at the test sites. They also noted irritation of the conjunctiva and nasal mucosa from the vapour of the crushed stems and leaves.
The dried plant, collected soon after flowering, is the source of the crude drug Pulsatilla, which was formerly official in the US Pharmacopoeia. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), the fresh plant is irritant when applied topically; and, if kept long in contact with the skin, may produce vesication. Müller (1850) described his work on the isolation and characterisation of anemone camphor [= anemonin containing residual protoanemonin] from this species. See also Ranunculus L. below.
Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 48% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The dried plant, collected soon after flowering, is an alternative source of the crude drug Pulsatilla, which was formerly official in the US Pharmacopoeia [see also Pulsatilla pratensis L. above]. Piffard (1881) noted that application of the plant to healthy intact skin may cause irritation, redness, and vesicles; and that it has proven useful when applied to putrid wounds, ragged nails, papules, and warts. Oesterlen (1856) and Pammel (1911) also referred to the irritancy of the plant. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Baer et al. (1946) demonstrated the presence of the irritant lactone protoanemonin in the steam distillate obtained from this plant. Ruijgrok (1966) reported the presence of a high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Anemone pulsatilla. Boll (1968) isolated ranunculin from this species when he confirmed its postulated structure and determined its absolute configuration. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 89% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. below. The genus comprises about 600 species of herbs found in temperate and cold regions, and on mountains in tropical regions. Many are cultivated as garden ornamentals and for cut flowers; others are weeds (Mabberley 2008). Culpeper (1652) acknowledged in his monograph on crowfoot that there were many "sorts of this Herb" and that "the most common Crowfoot [is] in tast biting & sharp, biting & blistering the Tongue". He also noted that "an Oyntment of the Leavs or Flowers wil draw a Blister". Schwartz et al. (1957) included buttercups in general (Ranunculus spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Rook (1962) noted that all the common species of buttercup are powerful irritants, adding that children who chew the stalks of buttercups may develop bullæ of the lips. Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed a number of species as acrid, irritant, or vesicant including:
Others are considered in the monographs below. Lacassagne & Joly (1927) described how various irritant plants, including several species of Ranunculus L., had been used by ex-soldiers in France in the 16th Century to ulcerate the skin in order to attract pity. Sniffing the bruised stems induces sneezing (Behl et al. 1966). Buttercups and mustard plants (fam. Cruciferae) were suggested as the causative agents in a case of Oppenheim's meadow dermatitis described by Ullmo (1932); probably irritancy rather than photosensitivity was responsible. According to Woods (1962), blisters, often on and around the lips, in children who have been playing with buttercups, are not uncommon in country practice. Poniecka (1990) observed skin changes resembling dermatitis pratensis bullosa in 3 children who reported contact with buttercups. Bergmann (1944) studied several species of Ranunculus for their vesicant action on the skin in a search for those plants which might therefore be supposed to contain a non-irritant precursor of the irritant compound, protoanemonin. The irritant properties were formerly ascribed to a crystalline material named anemone camphor (or pulsatilla camphor), soluble in ether and chloroform and possessing an intensely irritant vapour (Müller 1850, Beckurts 1892, Felter & Lloyd 1898, Remington et al. 1918). Later authors identified anemonol, ranunculus oil, or oil of anemone as the acrid principle. Oil of anemone was ultimately identified as protoanemonin, the cyclic lactone of γ-hydroxyvinylacrylic acid (Asahina & Fujita 1922, Kipping 1935). This lactone does not occur as such in the plant, but is released from a glycosidic precursor by enzyme action when the plant material is damaged. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) identified the precursor of protoanemonin as ranunculin, the absolute configuration of which was later determined by Boll (1968). Protoanemonin, in turn, is unstable and rapidly dimerises to form anemonin, the absolute configuration of which was finally established by Moriarty et al. (1965). Thus, we may suppose that anemone camphor or pulsatilla camphor [see above] is anemonin contaminated with residual protoanemonin. The presence of ranunculin in a plant or part of a plant can be taken to indicate that the plant material may well be irritant to the skin if specific conditions are met, namely exposure to fresh bruised material at an adequate concentration for an adequate period of time. Biological variation in the amount of ranunculin present and hence in the amount of protoanemonin released can be expected to occur between species and sub-species, between geographic locations, and at different stages during the growth of the plant. Thus, Ranunculus repens L. is often eaten by stock whereas Ranunculus acris L. and Ranunculus bulbosus L. are generally avoided when fresh (Harper 1957). Dried buttercups when fed in hay are, however, innocuous (Shearer 1938). On the basis of experiments carried out on Ranunculus bulbosus L. [see below], Shearer (1938) concluded that in all probability the amount of protoanemonin is highest at the time of flowering in all varieties of buttercups. Protoanemonin, in contact with the skin, produces subepidermal blistering. Like other subepidermal vesicants, protoanemonin is capable of inhibiting the acantholytic effect of cantharidin (Burbach 1963). Various species of Ranunculus L. have been used in traditional medicine as a local application for the treatment of joint and other pains. Cappelletti et al. (1982) referred to such uses in the traditional medicine of north-eastern Italy. Pisani (1967) described the use of buttercups in Italy as a caustic or vesicant agent applied to the ear and heel in the treatment of ischiatic [= sciatic] neuralgia. From an ethnobotanical survey carried out in Central Italy, Leporatti & Corradi (2001) reported that the fresh squashed leaves of several species are locally applied to areas of sciatic pain on the leg, the blister thus provoked being cleaned and left uncovered to dry. The fresh leaves are also used to soothe itching. Rodziewicz & Włodarczyk (1961) observed 15 cases of skin lesions resulting from such uses in Poland in the years 1952–1957. Bullous lesions were found in 11 cases, ulcers in 2, eczema in 1, and pyodermia erythemato-exudativa in 1 case. They noted also that the acute inflammatory conditions of the skin may be followed by chronic pyodermia and eczema. Rudzki & Dajek (1975) described a further 2 cases.
According to Pammel (1911), the leaves of the plant have an acrid peppery taste and cause blistering. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from a plant identified as Ranunculus abortivus var. eucyclus. See also Ranunculus L. above.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that the fresh plant applied to the skin repeatedly failed to produce a reaction. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant; Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of only very low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Some authors have referred to this species incorrectly as Ranunculus acer, a name of no botanical standing (Harper 1957). Felter & Lloyd (1898) included this species in a list of buttercups that may be indifferently substituted one for another, and which, when applied externally, are powerfully rubefacient and epispastic. Also, when any part of these plants is chewed, it occasions much pain, inflammation, and sometimes excoriation of the several parts of the mouth. White (1887), Piffard (1881), Schaffner (1903b), Pammel (1911), Lacassagne & Joly (1927), Touton (1932), and von Reis & Lipp (1982) similarly noted that the sap is acrid and vesicant. Coulter (1904) carried out experiments with the plant in 7 subjects. None showed any ill effects from treatment with aerial parts. Two showed sharp inflammation from rubbing the skin with the root, but neither showed any indication of ulcers although the inflammation was left untreated. Inflammatory symptoms disappeared by the end of the sixth day. Kuske (1937), by contrast, provided photographs of experimentally induced bullous reactions of the skin following contact with crushed leaves from Ranunculus acer. Massey (1941) included Ranunculus acris in a list of plants described as "less troublesome" causes of dermatitis, but did not cite the source of his information. Wendlberger (1935) claimed to have successfully transferred hypersensitivity to Ranunculus acer from one individual to another, suggesting that allergic sensitisation can occur as well as irritancy. De Napoli (1917) described a factitial skin eruption simulating pemphigus seen among Italian troops. The extensor surfaces of the legs were most commonly affected, sometimes the arms or face, only once the back. Bullae were observed, varying in size from a hazel nut to a turkey's egg, generally tense and full of lemon-yellow fluid, in some cases opalescent, never haemorrhagic, rarely purulent. Mingled with the bullae were small vesicles, in some cases confluent, in others disseminated over large patches of papular erythema resembling eczema. The affection lasted a week or longer if secondary infection occurred. The affection, which appeared in epidemic form among men from the same region, was found to have been produced by the application of a paste made by the trituration of Ranunculus acris that was growing abundantly in the territory occupied by the regiments in which the eruption appeared. Bullous dermatitis caused by this buttercup was also reported on the hands and fingers by Münch (1917) who described a case of a young girl whose mother had applied the sap of the plant as a home remedy for warts. Stuart (1911), who identified Ranunculus acris as the source of the Chinese crude drugs mao ken and mao chin, noted that in Chinese traditional medicine the leaves and seeds are used externally as blisters and counter-irritants, in foul sores, and in cancers. Perry & Metzger (1980) referred to the application of the pounded leaves to swellings in Taiwanese medicine. The burning sensation produced on the skin by this plant is more severe than that produced by the false bugbane Trautvetteria grandis Nutt. (Smith 1929). Winters (1976) documented a case of severe urticaria in a dog following the ingestion of tall field buttercup. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) and Bai et al. (1996) reported the isolation of ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in extracts prepared from this species sourced from several geographic locations. Shearer (1938), Ruijgrok (1966), and Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of moderate levels of protoanemonin from the plant. This lactone is also a major component of the floral odour emitted by the anthers (Jürgens & Dötterl 2004) and the pollen (Bergström et al. 1995). See also Ranunculus L. above.
Brooker & Cooper (1961a, 1961b) noted that the expressed juice from Ranunculus rivularis has blistering properties. Pammel (1911) listed the plant as being irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Pammel (1911) listed the plant as irritant; Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus arvensis applied to the skin was strongly irritant. In India, beggars and malingerers often use this plant to disfigure themselves with blisters (Behl & Captain 1979). Shearer (1938), who investigated nine species at or near their period of full flower, reported the presence of a moderate amount of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) later isolated ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) also found that the leaves from this species released moderate levels of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed this species as being irritant. However, in a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that the fresh plant applied to the skin produced only a slight reaction. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus breyninus applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from a plant named Ranunculus breyninus. In neither study was the identity of the plant material unequivocally established. This may be important because the name Ranunculus breyninus has also been applied to Ranunculus polyanthemos L. subsp. nemorosus Schübler & G.Martens [see below]. See also Ranunculus L. above.
The sap, leaves, flowers, buds, and roots are irritant (White 1887, Pammel 1911, Touton 1932). Piffard (1881) noted that this and most other members of the Ranunculaceae are acrid and caustic. They are apt … to cause ulcerations difficult to heal. The caustic principle … is so volatile that in most cases it is destroyed by desiccation, infusion in water, and decoction. In a case described by Garraway (1861), vesicles and bullae developed on the lower limbs of a girl, aged 5 years, who took a handful of these buttercups to bed with her. The crushed plants were discovered between the bed-sheets. In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus bulbosus applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Massey (1941) included this species in a list of plants described as "less troublesome" causes of dermatitis, but did not cite the source of his information. In the veterinary context, Kelch et al. (1992) described a case of photosensitisation secondary to suspected buttercup toxicosis in a Charolais heifer following ingestion of this plant. In Italian folk veterinary medicine, the plant has been used for the treatment of [unspecified] problems of the skin and wounds (Viegi et al. 2003). Kipping (1935) extracted protoanemonin from a steam distillate obtained from this plant when confirming the structure of this exceedingly irritant and lachrymatory oily substance. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) isolated ranunculin, the precursor of protoanemonin, from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) also reported the release of high levels of protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. The protoanemonin content, as determined from a steam distillate, was found to reach a maximum when the first flowers open, diminishing slightly when the plant is in full flower (Shearer 1938). Weber (1930, 1937) included this species in lists of irritating plants of the United States. According to Githens (1949), the plant material applied locally has been used in South Africa as a remedy for scabies. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. According to Behl & Captain (1979), this species is used by beggars and malingerers in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Bai et al. (1996) detected a very high level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. above. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described Ranunculus laetus as vesicant. von Reis & Lipp (1982) found an herbarium note on a specimen of Ranunculus laetus collected in the Himalayas stating that the flowers are used as a counter-irritant.
This species provides the crude drug Herba Ficariae. According to Steinmetz (1954), an ointment made from the herb with hog's lard is used as a specific in the treatment of piles and warts. Culpeper (1652), Martindale & Westcott (1924) and Wren (1988) also refer to its use in the treatment of haemorrhoids. Interestingly, Jarić et al. (2007) document the use in Central Serbia of an oral preparation of the chopped root [tuber] mixed with honey for this indication. It would seem that this use of the plant arose from the Doctrine of Signatures because of the resemblance of the tubers to haemorrhoids. Pammel (1911) listed the plant as having irritant properties. However, in a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ficaria verna applied to the skin repeatedly failed to produce a reaction. In Italian folk veterinary medicine, the plant has been used for the treatment of [unspecified] problems of the skin and wounds in cattle (Viegi et al. 2003). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, but only traces of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. Organ-specific distribution of protoanemonin in the plant was studied by Bonora et al. (1988), who found that protoanemonin was present in all parts of the plant, but the highest content was found in the stems and in the flowers. See also Ranunculus L. above.
According to Piffard (1881), the plant causes reddening and vesication when applied to intact healthy skin. Felter & Lloyd (1898) included this species in a list of buttercups that may be indifferently substituted one for another, and which, when applied externally, are powerfully rubefacient and epispastic. Also, when any part of these plants is chewed, it occasions much pain, inflammation, and sometimes excoriation of the several parts of the mouth. Prosser White (1934) referred to a case of a woman who developed inflammation and ulceration of the skin of the thigh after applying sciatic weed to the part. In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus flammula applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Pammel (1911), Lacassagne & Joly (1927), Touton (1932) and Hurst (1942) also referred to the irritant properties of this plant. Applied locally, the plant has proven useful in the treatment of corns and warts (Piffard 1881). Shearer (1938), who investigated nine species at or near their period of full flower, reported the presence of a very high level of the irritant lactone protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a large quantity of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a large quantity of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. This species is recognised as a cause of irritant contact dermatitis in Japan (Higashi 2004). Studies of the biosynthetic pathway leading to ranunculin and hence to the irritant lactone protoanemonin revealed that the immediate precursor is 2-oxo-glutarate (Suga et al. 1974, Suga & Hirata 1982). See also Ranunculus L. above. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the crushed or mashed plant is applied as a poultice to blisters from burns, open running sores, abrasions that do not heal, etc. The treatment causes blistering and is extremely painful (Turner 1984).
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus glacialis applied to the skin was only a weak blistering agent. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Samples of this arctic-alpine species growing in Italy have been found to accumulate nickel — 1260 ppm dry weight — from soils containing this element (Brooks 1998). The contact sensitising potential of nickel salts is well documented (Cronin 1980). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus gramineus applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a large amount of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a large amount of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this plant. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 75% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Oztas et al. (2006) reported two cases from Turkey of severe bullous contact dermatitis caused by a plant identified as Ranunculus illyricus subsp. illyricus. Both resulted from the misguided application of the fresh plant material to the skin for self-treatment of rheumatological joint pain. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this species released high levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. Bai et al. (1996) detected a low level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. above. This species is recognised as a cause of irritant contact dermatitis in Japan (Higashi 2004). Shin et al. (2006) in Korea reported a case of irritant contact dermatitis caused by this species in a 78-year old female who had applied the plant material as a treatment for arthralgia.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus steveni [sic] applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a large amount of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a large amount of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from a plant identified as Ranunculus stevenii. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Touton (1932) included this species in a list of irritant buttercups; and Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. According to Behl & Captain (1979), it is used in the same way by beggars and malingerers as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. However, in a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus lingua applied to the skin repeatedly failed to produce a reaction. Shearer (1938), who investigated nine species at or near their period of full flower, reported the presence of a moderate level of the irritant lactone protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from this species. Ruijgrok (1966) detected a high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from Ranunculus pseudohirculus. See also Ranunculus L. above.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus montanus applied to the skin was strongly irritant. Ruijgrok (1966) detected protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. According to Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), the plant is acrid and burning when chewed, and produces a considerable degree of irritation of the parts to which it is applied. They noted also that a severe burning sensation develops in the eyes if the fresh plant material is minced with the eyes unprotected; and that the bruised leaf, applied locally, has been used as a remedy for scabies. When eaten by sheep, the chief symptoms of poisoning are a profuse ropy salivation and trembling of the lips associated with acute ulcerative stomatitis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Verdcourt & Trump 1969).
This species is regarded as intensely acrid (Ewart & Tovey 1909). Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the achenes [= fruitlets with seed] are pulverised, moistened, and rubbed on the skin to cause blistering (Turner 1984).
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Ranunculus otoleucos [sic]. See also Ranunculus L. above. Metin et al. (2001) in Turkey described a case of a 45-year old woman who presented with ulcerated bullous, vesicular and pustular lesions on her abdomen, right knee, and abdomen after applying the leaves and flowers of Ranunculus damascenus in the self-treatment of pain.
In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that the fresh plant applied to the skin was very strongly irritant.
Shearer (1938), who investigated nine species at or near their period of full flower, was possibly referring to this species when he reported that a very high quantity of the irritant lactone protoanemonin was released by Ranunculus parvioflorus [sic] upon steam distillation. Hurst (1942) recorded that the plant is irritant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. According to Behl & Captain (1979), this species is used by beggars and malingerers in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. The irritant action of the plant is similar to that of cantharidin but more delayed (Martínez 1969). Ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, has been reported to be present in this species from New Zealand's subantarctic Campbell and Auckland Islands (Lorimer et al. 1996). See also Ranunculus L. above.
Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 98% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. above. Touton (1932) included Ranunculus polyanthemus [sic] in a list of irritant buttercups.
Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from Ranunculus nemorosus released very low levels (<100 µg/g wet wt) of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Felter & Lloyd (1898) included this species in a list of buttercups that may be indifferently substituted one for another, and which, when applied externally, are powerfully rubefacient and epispastic. Also, when any part of these plants is chewed, it occasions much pain, inflammation, and sometimes excoriation of the several parts of the mouth. According to White (1887) inflammation of the skin of the palms can result from pulling the plant by hand. Touton (1932) also refers to the irritant properties of this species. In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus repens applied to the skin was strongly irritant. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the leaves are chewed and applied to sores and muscular pains. The poultice is left on for a few hours, but not overnight; blisters form as if the skin has been burned (Turner 1984). Shearer (1938), Ruijgrok (1966), and Bonora et al. (1987) all reported the release of only a small amount of protoanemonin from this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Kipping (1935) extracted protoanemonin from a steam distillate obtained from Ranunculus hirsutus when confirming the structure of this exceedingly irritant and lachrymatory oily substance. Of nine species investigated by Shearer (1938) at or near their period of full flower, Ranunculus sardus var. hirsutus [sic; a name of no botanical standing] was found to release the highest percentage of protoanemonin. Similarly, Ruijgrok (1966) detected a high level of ranunculin in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Ranunculus sardous. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Numerous authors (White 1887, Schaffner 1903b, Pammel 1911, Fyles 1920, Lacassagne & Joly 1927, Weber 1930, Touton 1932, Weber 1937, Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Shelmire 1939b, Shelmire 1940, Bergmann 1944, Nadkarni 1976) have recorded that the fresh plant is intensely irritant and can produce violent blistering, particularly of the lips and tongue, but also of the skin. Piffard (1881) noted that if the plant be bruised and laid upon any part of the body, it will in a few hours raise a blister. He noted also that the juice causes vesicles and obstinate ulcers. According to Behl & Captain (1979), this species is used by beggars and malingerers in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. Felter & Lloyd (1898) included this species in a list of buttercups that may be indifferently substituted one for another, and which, when applied externally, are powerfully rubefacient and epispastic. Also, [they continued] when any part of these plants is chewed, it occasions much pain, inflammation, and sometimes excoriation of the several parts of the mouth. Applied locally, the plant has proven useful in the treatment of chronic ulcers (Piffard 1881). In Ayurvedic medicine, the plant is known as kandira. It is used to treat septic ulcers (Biswas & Mukherjee 2003). The plant is used as a counter-irritant and for the treatment of vitiligo in Egypt (Hifny Saber et al. 1968). The ability of various fractions of the plant to modulate, both in vitro and in vivo, processes involved in inflammation was studied by Prieto et al. (2003). Different extracts from the aerial parts of the plant were tested in several models of acute inflammation induced by tetradecanoylphorbol acetate, arachidonic acid, and carrageenan, as well as in two models of delayed hypersensitivity induced by oxazolone and dinitrofluorobenzene. When tested in vivo, all of the extracts showed anti-inflammatory or neutral effects. It is not clear whether any of the extracts actually contained the irritant lactone protoanemonin, or whether this lactone had undergone complete dimerisation during the extraction and fractionation process. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) isolated ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, from this species. Ranunculin was also detected by Ruijgrok (1966). The release of protoanemonin from this species has been reported by Shearer (1938), Ruijgrok (1966), Hifny Saber et al. (1968), Mahran et al. (1968), and by Misra & Dixit (1980). See also Ranunculus L. above. The presence of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the leaves has been reported by Bhargava et al. (1965) but the contribution, if any, of this substance to the skin reaction elicited by the damaged plant material remains to be determined. Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released moderate levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. This lactone is also produced in cell suspension cultures of the plant material (Bonora et al. 1989). See also Ranunculus L. above. By comparison with material they described as being derived from Ranunculus japonicus Langsd., Asahina & Fujita (1922) established the structures of protoanemonin and anemonin by synthesis using 3-bromo-4-keto pentanoic acid as starting material, observing also that two molecules of protoanemonin dimerise spontaneously to form anemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. The possibility cannot be excluded that they were actually working with Ranunculus japonicus Thunb., a distinct species, which they mis-identified or mis-named.
Ruijgrok (1966) detected ranunculin in an extract prepared from the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. Perry & Metzger (1980) noted that in Indo-China a paste made from the leaves and seeds has been applied to abscesses, but cautioned that several layers of paper need to be placed between the paste and the skin to protect it from erosion. In traditional Chinese medicine, the crude drug known as mao zhao cao, Ranunculi Ternati Tuber, or cat's claw buttercup root is obtained from this species.
Pammel (1911) and Touton (1932) included this species in lists of irritant buttercups. In a study of several species of buttercup, Bergmann (1944) noted that fresh Ranunculus thora applied to the skin was very strongly irritant. Bai et al. (1996) detected a low level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. above. Using quantitative high pressure liquid chromatography, Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from this plant released low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. These herbs, of which there are 120–200 species, are found distributed in northern temperate regions, New Guinea, tropical America, and tropical and southern Africa (Mabberley 2008). Schwartz et al. (1957) included meadow rues in general (Thalictrum spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. It is possible that these plants have been assumed to be irritant because of their relationship to buttercups (Ranunculus L. spp.) or because of confusion with the common rue (Ruta graveolens L., fam. Rutaceae). Ruijgrok (1966) screened a number of species for ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, but none was detected [see also Ranunculus L. above]:
Others are considered in the monographs below.
Although Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in the plant, Bonora et al. (1987) reported the release of a very low level of the irritant lactone protoanemonin from the leaves. See also Ranunculus L. above. Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in the plant; Bonora et al. (1987) could detect no release of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. above. Behl & Captain (1979) referred to this species and to Thalictrum minus L. [see below] when they noted that meadow rue has been reported to produce irritation on contact. Begum & Nath (2000) noted that in the traditional medicine of north-eastern India, a decoction prepared from the leaves is applied for the treatment of sores. Behl & Captain (1979) referred to this species and to Thalictrum foliolosum DC. [see above] when they noted that meadow rue has been reported to produce irritation on contact. However, Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in the plant. See also Ranunculus L. above. The native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas chew the dried fruits then rub them on the hair and body as a perfume. A "smudge" [= burning to release non-material essences] prepared from the plant is used as an insect repellant. The root is used to prepare a poultice for open wounds (Turner 1984). Bai et al. (1996) detected no ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. See also Ranunculus L. above.
Ruijgrok (1966) could detect no ranunculin in Anemonella thalictroides. See also Ranunculus L. above.
In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the roots are pounded with a little water and applied as a poultice to boils. This treatment is said to promote suppuration but causes intense burning (Smith 1929, Turner 1984). The genus comprises 31 species of herbs, which occur naturally in northern temperate regions (Mabberley 2008). Ruijgrok (1966) screened a number of species for ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, but none was detected [see also Ranunculus L. above]:
Ruijgrok (1966) screened this species for ranunculin; none was detected. Jürgens & Dötterl (2004), who studied the floral odour, reported that protoanemonin accounted for about 2% of the composition of volatile substances released from the anthers. See also Ranunculus L. above. Bai et al. (1996) detected a low level of ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. Ranunculin is a glucoside from which the irritant lactone protoanemonin is released when the plant material is damaged. See also Ranunculus L. above. References
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